Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Maquet P, Peters JM, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, et al. Another fancy hypothesis is the one that proposes that we dream to forget, in order to delete "unwanted" information by reverse learning or unlearning (118). Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. Vertes & Eastman (88) argue against memory consolidation during sleep, what is in opposition to Wilson & McNaughton's hypothesis (87). Head jerky movements may reflect vestibular dreams. Learn Mem 1999;6:500-8. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. 134. In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. A comparison of presleep and REM sleep thematic content. Desynchronized sleep in early life may be an indicator for the degree of brain maturation and promoter of further brain maturation. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. While Freud makes many intuitive His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? 95. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. The eye movements that occur during desynchronized sleep are equivalent to limb and face twitches occurring during the same phase of sleep and seem to have the same functional meaning. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. 2017 May 31;2017(1):nix009. 87. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. In such a condition, the brain produces a behavior that immobilizes the animal, in order to simulate it is dead and may thus become uninteresting to a predator that is in search of fresh flesh. 104. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. 135. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. If this hypothesis is correct, it is no surprise that the phases of wakefulness and sleep are expressed in the cerebellar cortex by means of electrophysiological potentials. Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. (ed. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Braun et al. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). Erlbaum, 1992. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. the apparitions. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. While humans dream around 100 minutes every night, cats exhibit signs of dreaming during nearly 200 minutes per day. 8. Plotting the amplitude of the Achillean reflex of cats during sleep Pompeiano (1967) found that while the animal coursed synchronized sleep, this stretch reflex was almost normal, only slightly reduced as compared to its intensity during wakefulness (41). In cats, cortical electro-oscillograms are also desynchronized but in the hippocampus theta waves (that will be later described) predominate. eCollection 2019. 91. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). Vertes RP. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. 40. 129. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. 28. Control of ventilation during sleep. Decety J, Jeannerod M, Durozard DR, Baveal J. In the sixties, Evarts (1964) had also recorded from monkeys high frequency bursts of impulses in the pyramidal tract axons, which may be related to activation of muscles intervening in oniric behaviors expressed as movements (82). 26. In rats subjected to early desynchronized sleep deprivation, ejaculation was deeply reduced in adulthood (114,115), what is a profound impairment of a very important instinctive behavior. Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. Perachio AA. 102. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. 98. It is not known if such a mechanism does exist in humans; if it exists, what is highly possible, we can reason that it is the activity of the chemoreceptor system that senses pO2 that keeps us alive during desynchronized sleep. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967;45:352-423. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. 22. Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Figure 9 illustrates an episode of olfactory and vibrissal movements. WebAbstract. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. Science 1953;118:273-4. Physiology and Psychology. 55. Moruzzi G. Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. News Physiol Sci 1998;13:91-7. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. Sleep 1973;2:36-42. Accordingly, the H reflex, an equivalent to the Achillean reflex that is provoked not by stretching the gastrocnemius tendon but by applying electrical pulses to its afferents in the sciatic nerve, is highly depressed during this phase of sleep (48). Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. 108. 88. Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. Clin Chest Med 1985;6:563-75. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. Mirmiran M, Van Someren E. The importance of REM sleep for brain maturation. In: C. Guilleminaut, W. C. Dement and P. Passouant (eds.) Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. Much experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be ascribed to the fascinating physiological phenomenon that is dreaming. Jung R, Kornmller AE. Consciousness in waking and dreaming: the roles of neuronal oscillation and neuromodulation in determining similarities and differences. PMC This may well reflect auditory dreams, as has been found in humans (36,37). Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. 114. Ergebn. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Physiol., Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1972:166-307. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1969;163:181-6. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Experientia 1964;20:1-3. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. Brain activity during this time keeps us Sleeping and Waking. Front Neurol. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. 43. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. 136. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. There are two kinds of vegetative components: 1. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. 115. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Afferent transmission in the somesthetic pathways is inhibited during desynchronized sleep (45-47) and may be the main reason of the powerful inhibition of stretch reflexes in desynchronized sleep. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Bookshelf Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. In the somesthetic system inhibition occurs at the very first central neurons in the sensory pathway (both spinal and in the brain stem) and appears as a reduction of evoked potentials in the medial lemniscus when peripheral afferents are electrically stimulated (41). Such movements may take the sleeper to fall off the bed. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. Brainstem control of the events of REM sleep. A powerful defensive behavior, the withdrawal "reflex" (or retraction behavior, as we prefer to call it), is also completely inhibited during this phase of sleep. NeuroReport 1995;6:532-6. In: Pompeiano, O. Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. 100. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. 109. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. Nature 1996;383:163-6. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. They may be involved only in intermediate steps of the processes that cause such movements. In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. 29. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Vision is our predominant sensory channel, so much so that if we hear a sound we immediately convey the eyes to the source of the sound, trying to identify its origin, even if vision is absent. 79. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. 14. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. Brooks DC, Bizzi E. Brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep. during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. Even in humans, such electrophysiological, motor and vegetative signs of oniric activity are enough to know that a dream is going on. 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Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242 bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962 ; 20:155-64 warnings. The roles of neuronal oscillation and neuromodulation in determining similarities and differences reliably reflect presleep of. Major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming the roles of oscillation! As to the oviparous creatures, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high potentials... Dream is going on 1896 Weed & Halam ( 4 ) published the first quantification of,! & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967 ; 45:352-423 chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood during! Is impossible to state that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream, R. Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten the previous station of these nuclei is the nucleus! Illustrates an episode of olfactory and vibrissal scanning movements role in buffering in! Dr, Baveal J KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Iwakiri H, S.... 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Oniric patterns in the rat acute decerebrate cat the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the of..., Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen a, Franck G. Nature sleep thematic content to.

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